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Deepening a Culture of Military Professionalism in Africa
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By the Africa Center for Strategic Studies
ADDIS ABABA - Creating a culture of military professionalism requires instilling core societal values within all members of the armed forces. Such shared values have a powerful unifying effect on a military, amplifying force cohesion and effectiveness.
“The armed forces in many African countries represent a threat to security because of their lack of military professionalism.”
This assessment by General Mbaye Cissé, National Security Advisor to the President of Senegal, identified a focal point in a dialogue on military professionalism and professional military education among senior security officials from 30 African countries hosted by the Africa Center for Strategic Studies on December 14, on the sidelines of the U.S. Africa Leaders Summit in Washington, DC. In addition to remarks by General Cissé, the dialogue featured insights from United States Secretary of the Army Christine Wormuth and Commander of United States Africa Command, General Michael Langley.
Africa has experienced seven military coups as well as several attempted coups since 2020, revealing a pattern of increasingly politicized militaries on the continent. This spate of unconstitutional changes of power upends a two-decade trend of diminishing incidences of military coups in Africa. It also risks a return to the era of misgovernance, stagnant development, impunity, and instability that characterized Africa’s military governments of the 1960s to 1990s—often referred to as Africa’s “lost decades.” Africa experienced 82 coups between 1960 and 2000.
Alarmed by the growing number of recent coups, the African Union held an extraordinary summit on the issue in May. In December, the leaders of the Economic Community of West African States, similarly, committed to establishing a regional force to restore constitutional order in member countries that experience coups.
Why Military Professionalism Matters
Military professionalism is a means to effectively provide security for citizens in a manner that upholds the rule of law and safeguards human rights.
Achieving this requires strong ties to local communities and a commitment to educating the armed forces about their responsibilities to society. General Cissé observed that “there is a correlation between military effectiveness and the relationship between a country’s military and the public.” The rationale is that military support of community interests builds trust. This trust both mitigates against the emergence of violent extremism as well as facilitates more effective responses against security threats when they emerge. “An army that does not invest in education and ethics in relation to the population pays a price in terms of security,” he added.
Military professionalism is a particular challenge for African militaries because of the legacy of colonialism. “One aspect of the heritage of colonialism is that security forces’ main mission was repression. The forces were not united, they were artificial, and were too present in the political arena. This is an ongoing handicap,” General Cissé counselled.
For these reasons, Africa must make a dedicated effort to strengthen and sustain military professionalism.
Strengthening Military Professionalism in Africa
Military professionalism does not emerge by chance but is a dedicated outcome. It is not the result of a single event or temporary push that builds professionalism and then produces benefits indefinitely. Rather, it must be constantly reinforced, refined, and perpetuated. Military professionalism is a culture that must be institutionalized to reverberate within a force.
Culture
Central to creating a culture of military professionalism is instilling within soldiers, from the lowest rank to the most senior officer, core societal values and principles that the military aspires to represent. Values such as integrity, honor, expertise, sacrifice, and respect for citizens do not necessarily emerge naturally but must be taught and regularly refreshed. Nearly all militaries provide tactical training and exercises—establishing core competencies. However, many lack an intentional strategy to build a set of core values. Creating such shared values has a powerful unifying effect on a military, amplifying force cohesion and effectiveness.
Secretary Wormuth noted that in the United States military, general officers regularly participate in professional development programs, including an ongoing process of inculcating values of military professionalism and creating leadership development opportunities for subordinates.
An illustration of the ongoing acculturation process was an open letter released in September 2022, “Principles of Civilian Control and Best Practices of Civil-Military Relations,” by 13 former U.S. Secretaries of Defense and Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff that was widely circulated via the media to the U.S. military, policy community, and public.
General Cissé underlined “the importance of teaching military officers the value of democracy and the role of a military within a democratic society.” These values must be learned and cannot be taken for granted, especially in countries without a strong democratic tradition. He advocated for military leaders gaining experience in democratic societies so that they could deepen their appreciation for the dynamics of civil-military relations.
There is a role for the international democratic community to help anchor democracy and an ethos of military professionalism in Africa, General Cissé observed: “When African regional organizations sanction coups, then it is important that the international democratic community get behind and support these sanctions.”
Senegal has emphasized public service as a core value through its “armée-nation,” the engagement of the Senegalese army in infrastructure, health, and education projects at the community level. The aim is to impart on both citizens and soldiers the understanding that the army is the nation’s army, and that its mission is not just to defend the territorial integrity of the nation, but also to contribute directly to the socioeconomic development of the country. By supporting human security, the army is also reinforcing norms of ethical behavior toward citizens. The army, thus, is engaged in both physical and human security.
Institutionalization
Professional military education (PME) is a primary vehicle through which an ethos of military professionalism can be institutionalized. Unlike trainings, which focus on tactical skills and operational proficiencies, PME aims to cultivate leadership, strategic vision, and ethical values among a country’s military leaders.
General Langley’s experience is that PME is particularly vital for “emphasizing democratic values, including upholding the rule of law, especially in conflict.” Likewise, PME is integral for instilling respect for civilian control. The two are complementary as it is the leadership and values gained through PME that enables military officers to be effective advisors to civilian leaders, General Langley clarified.
General Cissé agreed with the importance of PME for institutionalizing military professionalism, saying “without PME, you will not have stability.” He cautioned, however, that PME must focus on the core priorities of a society. They need to be practical and relevant to the national context. In Senegal, he feels PME is an essential means of building a republican army.
Merit-based recruitment and promotion is another means by which military professionalism can be institutionalized. The pattern of recruiting predominantly from the ethnicity of the president, seen in some African militaries, creates a chain of command more loyal to the president than to the constitution. Ethnically biased armed forces lack the popular trust, legitimacy, and competency of a merit-based force, hindering its effectiveness. Selection to PME institutions, General Cissé underscored, needs to be merit-based with exams that officers must pass for promotion. Promotion, moreover, cannot be based just on field performance over classroom and ethical considerations.
General Cissé called for a new PME roadmap in Africa. He characterized the recent backsliding in military professionalism in Africa as evidence that PME needs to be reassessed and reoriented. “We have many PME academies in Africa, but we need to rethink the content they are teaching. In this sense, PME institutes are not sufficient. Nor are there sufficient resources available to support them.”
Civil-Military Relations
A central feature of military professionalism is trustworthy civil-military relations.
Civilian and military leaders both have critical roles in security decision-making, though they are different and complementary. Democratically elected civilian leaders are responsible for setting a vision, strategy, and policy for the security interests of a country. Military leaders are then responsible for implementing that guidance in as effective and professional manner as possible. General Langley explained, “the ultimate decision-makers are civilian leaders. My role is to provide sound advice. Every military should strive to be apolitical so they can be objective with their advice.”
General Cissé stressed the importance of the military role being clearly defined. “It is the absence of clear borders between the political and military arenas that leads to decreased stability.”
While the civil-military relationship can be complex and entails constant effort, blending as it does two distinct sets of experiences, it also brings many strengths. Secretary Wormuth expounded that “civilians bring different perspectives and ask different questions than military leaders. Civilians also bring outside world sensitivities to military decision-making.” This leads to more well-rounded and considered decisions.
In the end, “military leaders need to trust civilian decision-making” under democratic systems, reflected Secretary Wormuth. “Civilians have the right to be wrong. Their job is to make decisions—and then to be held accountable.”
“Trust does not just happen, though. It needs to be earned, built, and nurtured,” advised Secretary Wormuth. To do so, “civilians need to work to educate themselves about the military and its background, interests, and values, so as to understand where military leaders are coming from.”
Civilians can also bring additional objectivity and balance to security decision-making, for example, by “helping to mediate intra-service debates,” observed Wormuth. “It is important for military leaders to recognize that civilians also bring value,” she added.
In short, effective civil-military relations are a two-way process that requires regular maintenance.
Military Professionalism is Indispensable for National Progress
Security is essential for strengthening democracy and economic development in Africa. With most African conflicts and threats to citizen security emerging from domestic political crises, military professionalism can be an indispensable stabilizing factor for a society.
“We need African militaries to serve the public,” General Cissé summarized. “We need African militaries to be autonomous, accountable, and respectful of democratic values. If they are not, we will constantly be starting over and will not have stability.”
Benefits of a professional military
- More effective national and citizen security provision
- Politically neutral military officers
- National and republican armed forces
- Clearly defined vision, mission, and role for each security organization
- Greater responsiveness to national security priorities
- More efficiency in the alignment and use of resources as well as greater legislative and public support to fund the military
- Security forces that uphold the law, respect human rights, and are accountable to a military code of conduct and civilian oversight
- Enhanced public trust, respect, and support for security forces
Adapted from DCAF, “The Armed Forces: Roles and Responsibilities in Good Security Sector Governance”
Additional Resources
- “To Support and Defend: Principles of Civilian Control and Best Practices of Civil-Military Relations,” Open Letter from former Secretaries of Defense and former Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, War on the Rocks, September 6, 2022.
- “Professional Military Education Institutions in Africa,” Infographic, Africa Center for Strategic Studies, February 25, 2022.
- Risa Brooks, “Beyond Huntington: US Military Professionalism Today,” Parameters 51, no. 1 (2021).
- Joseph Siegle, “Africa’s Coups and the Role of External Actors,” Spotlight, Africa Center for Strategic Studies, December 17, 2021.
- Steve Maguire, “Professional Military Education Needs Reform. Here’s Why and What to do,” Wavell Room, October 13, 2021.
- Pat Paterson, “Measuring Military Professionalism in Partner Nations: Guidance for Security Assistance Officials,”Journal of Military Ethics 18, no. 2 (2019).
- Kwesi Aning and Joseph Siegle, “Assessing Attitudes of the Next Generation of African Security Sector Professionals,” Africa Center Research Paper 7, May 2019.
- Abel Esterhuyse and Benjamin Mokoena, “The Need for Progress in an Era of Transformation: South African Professional Military Education and Military Effectiveness,”Stability: International Journal of Security & Development 7, no. 1 (2018).
- Hubert de Reviers, “L’École de Guerre et la formation des élites militaires,”Revue Défense Nationale No. 798 (2017).
- Emile Ouédraogo, “Advancing Military Professionalism in Africa,” Africa Center Research Paper 6, July 2014.
French language declining in North Africa, says Macron
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TUNIS - The use of French is on the decline in North Africa, France's president has acknowledged during a summit of French-speaking nations in Tunisia.
"English is a new common language that people have accepted," Emmanuel Macron said at the Francophonie meeting. But he added that French remains "the universal language of the African continent".
The Francophonie grouping - made up mainly of former French colonies - has been criticised for failing to take a stronger role in diplomacy and crisis resolution, while the current hosts Tunisia have received international condemnation for the president's recent power grab.
On Friday, Tunisian police fired tear gas at protestors trying to reach the island of Djerba where the summit is happening.
About 30 leaders - including those of Ivory Coast, Gabon, Rwanda, and Canada - are said to be attending this weekend's talks focusing on economic cooperation as well as responses to the Ukraine crisis.
AFP news agency says Mr Macron told fellow member that the Francophonie should be "a space of resistance and reconquest" and called for it to reclaim its role.
Uganda to Close Schools Early After Eight Children Die of Ebola
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KAMPALA - Schools across Uganda will close two weeks before the scheduled end of term after 23 Ebola cases were confirmed among pupils, including eight children who died.
Education Minister Janet Kataha Museveni said on Tuesday that the cabinet had taken the decision to close preschools, primary schools and secondary schools on November 25 because densely packed classrooms were making students highly vulnerable to infection.
“Closing schools earlier will reduce areas of concentration where children are in daily close contact with fellow children, teachers and other staff who could potentially spread the virus,” the minister, who is also the wife of longtime President Yoweri Museveni, said in a statement.
Students in Uganda are currently in their third and final term of the calendar year.
According to government figures from Sunday, 135 people have been infected with Ebola and 53 have died.
The World Health Organization (WHO) last week said Uganda had registered more than 150 confirmed and probable cases, including 64 fatalities. Uganda’s last recorded death from a previous Ebola outbreak was in 2019.
The virus circulating in Uganda is the Sudan strain of Ebola, for which there is no proven vaccine, unlike the more common Zaire strain, which spread during recent outbreaks in neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni on Friday reiterated his refusal to impose a nationwide Covid-like lockdown to contain the spread of Ebola despite a worrying increase in cases..."There will be NO LOCKDOWN. Therefore, people should go ahead and concentrate on their work without any worry," he said on Twitter.
Official confirms detailed Ethiopia peace deal is final
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By CARA ANNA
NAIROBI, Kenya — An official close to the Ethiopian peace talks says the copy of the “permanent cessation of hostilities” agreement obtained by The Associated Press with details on disarmament of Tigray forces and federal control of the Tigray region is the signed and final one.
The official spoke on condition of anonymity Thursday, a day after the deal’s announcement, because they weren’t authorized to speak publicly. Enormous challenges lie ahead in implementing the deal, including getting all parties to lay down arms or withdraw.
The agreement says Tigray forces will be disarmed, starting with “light weapons” within 30 days of Wednesday’s signing, and Ethiopian federal security forces will take full control of “all federal facilities, installations, and major infrastructure such as airports and highways within the Tigray region.”
The final, detailed agreement hasn’t been made public, but the brief joint statement read out by the warring parties Wednesday night notes “a detailed program of disarmament” and ”restoration of constitutional order” in Tigray.
The war in Africa’s second-most populous country, which marks two years on Friday, has seen abuses documented on both sides, with millions of people displaced and many near famine.
On Thursday, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed asserted on a visit to southern Ethiopia that his government’s proposal at the talks was accepted completely and the government was ready to “open our hearts” for peace to prevail. He also said the issue of contested areas will only be resolved through the law of the land and negotiations.
Ethiopian media outlets have ceased using the word “terrorist” to refer to Tigray authorities and forces. The country is holding a remembrance event Thursday for some victims of the conflict.
Inside Tigray, one humanitarian source in the town of Shire said there was no sound of gunfire, as in the past few days, and a “blockade” of movement on people and vehicles was still in place. Like many inside Tigray, the source spoke on condition of anonymity for fear of retaliation.
Ethiopian govt, Tigray agree to end fighting after 2 years
Ethiopia’s warring sides agreed Wednesday in Pretoria, South Africa, to a permanent cessation of hostilities in a conflict believed to have killed hundreds of thousands, but enormous challenges lie ahead, including getting all parties to lay down arms or withdraw.
The war in Africa’s second-most populous country, which marks two years on Friday, has seen abuses documented on both sides, with millions of people displaced and many near famine.
“The level of destruction is immense,” said the lead negotiator for Ethiopia’s government, Redwan Hussein. Lead Tigray negotiator Getachew Reda expressed a similar sentiment and noted that “painful concessions” had been made. Exhausted Ethiopians, urged by the parties to “stop voices of division and hate,” watched them shake hands.
A draft text of the agreement, shared with The Associated Press by a diplomat, says Tigray forces will be disarmed, starting with “light weapons” within 30 days of Wednesday’s signing, and Ethiopian federal security forces will take full control of “all federal facilities, installations, and major infrastructure such as airports and highways within the Tigray region.” The final, detailed agreement was not made public, but the brief joint statement notes “a detailed program of disarmament” and ”restoration of constitutional order” in Tigray.
Ethiopia’s government will continue restoring basic services to the Tigray region, where communications, transport and banking links for more than 5 million people have been severed since fighting began. The parties also commit to unfettered humanitarian access.
“The devil will be in the implementation,” said former Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta, who helped facilitate the talks. An African Union panel with representatives from both sides and Africa experts will monitor the process.
It was not immediately clear when independent journalists and human rights researchers would be allowed into Tigray.
Major questions remain. Neighboring Eritrea, which has fought alongside Ethiopia, was not part of the peace talks. It’s not clear to what extent its deeply repressive government, which has long considered Tigray authorities a threat, will respect the agreement. The draft says the Ethiopian and Tigray sides agree to stop “collusion with any external force hostile to either party.” Eritrea’s information minister didn’t reply to questions.
Eritrean forces have been blamed for some of the conflict’s worst abuses, including gang rapes, and witnesses have described killings and lootings by Eritrean forces even during the peace talks. On Wednesday, a humanitarian source said several women in the town of Adwa reported being raped by Eritrean soldiers, and some were badly wounded. The source, like many on the situation inside Tigray, spoke on condition of anonymity for fear of retaliation.
Forces from Ethiopia’s neighboring Amhara region also have been fighting Tigray forces, but Amhara representatives also were not part of the talks. “Amharas cannot be expected to abide by any outcome of a negotiations process from which they think they are excluded,” said Tewodrose Tirfe, chairman of the Amhara Association of America.
But observers long strained by the conflict welcomed the agreement. “This is very much a welcome first step,” said the United Nations secretary-general’s spokesman, Stephane Dujarric. U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Linda Thomas-Greenfield told reporters she was delighted because “what it means is that lives will be saved.”
Another critical question is how soon aid can return to Tigray. Doctors have described running out of basic medicines like vaccines, insulin and therapeutic food while people die of easily preventable diseases and starvation. U.N. human rights investigators have said the Ethiopian government was using “starvation of civilians” as a weapon of war.
“We’re back to 18th-century surgery,” a surgeon at the region’s flagship hospital, Fasika Amdeslasie, told health experts at an online event Wednesday. “It’s like an open-air prison.”
A humanitarian source said their organization could resume operations almost immediately if unfettered aid access to Tigray is granted.
“It entirely depends on what the government agrees to. ... If they genuinely give us access, we can start moving very quickly, in hours, not weeks,” said the source, who spoke on condition of anonymity because they were not authorized to speak publicly.
The conflict began in November 2020, less than a year after Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for making peace with Eritrea, which borders the Tigray region. Abiy’s government has since declared the Tigray authorities, who ruled Ethiopia for nearly three decades before Abiy took office, a terrorist organization. The Ethiopian government will facilitate the lifting of that designation, the draft agreement says.
The brutal fighting, which also spilled into the Amhara and Afar regions as Tigray forces pressed toward the capital last year, was renewed in August in Tigray after months of lull that allowed thousands of trucks of aid into the region. According to minutes of a Tigray Emergency Coordination Center meeting on Oct. 21, seen by the AP, health workers reported 101 civilians killed by drone strikes and airstrikes, and 265 injured, between Sept. 27 and Oct. 10 alone.
“The agreement signed today in South Africa is monumental in moving Ethiopia forward on the path of the reforms we embarked upon four and half years ago,” Abiy said in a statement after the agreement. “Our commitment to peace remains steadfast.”
But he made clear he saw the agreement as a win for his government. In a speech hours before Wednesday’s announcement, the prime minster said: “We need to replicate the victory we got on the battlefield in peace efforts, too.”
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